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Ministry & the CHURCh
I offer here a short examination of the history of ministry within Christianity. The objective of this task is not only to highlight some of the theological developments that arose over time in the church, but also to look at the sociological influences that have created change over the last two millennia. Much of the literature that presents surveys such as the one I intend to do here use similar typologies or divisions. The common areas of growth begin with the early church experience and move their way through the early medieval experience to the time of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, and onward to the modern age. For the purposes of this paper, I shall not make use of these typologies but rather will rely on Robert Ellwood’s stages of development in viewing ministry. Ellwood notes that there are common stages to the development of the major religious traditions. These periods are the apostolic age, the period of doctrinal and institutional consolidation, the imperial period, a period of reform, and the period we face today, modernity (1983:53-54). Each of these periods is marked by their own definitive characteristics, and each presents “a novel sort of drama that interprets the meaning of one’s real self” (1983:53). While this set of stages has some similarities with the other typologies that are used, there are also differences as we shall see. Another short methodological concern is that the survey herein will focus on Western Christianity, especially as we get to the later stages of development. The development of these stages of ministry is rooted in the historical experience of Jesus Christ as that experience had been, and continues to be, manifest and understood within the community. The political climate at the time of Jesus Christ was one of upheaval. While the Sadduccees continued to exert control over the temple cult of Judaism, and by implication, the temple priesthood, another group, the Pharisees, sought to bring out the Jewish Law from the temple to the synagogue. That is, they sought to make the Law more accessible and relevant to the everyday life of the Jews. This movement away from the temple, and the eventual destruction of the temple in 70 CE by the Romans had significant impact on Jesus Christ and as we shall see on the first stage of development of ministry in Christianity.
Jesus Christ: The Founder Ellwood’s stages of development begin after the founder. To carry on such an examination, it is important to look at the founder of Christianity in terms of ministry. As Schillebeeckx notes, what was essential for Jesus Christ can be summed up in the prayer instituted by him, the “Our Father”. Two lines particularly offer insight into the place of ministry as Jesus saw it, and were the underpinnings of his message: Your Kingdom come” and “Your will be done” (1985:20). Jesus’ activities center on the actualization of these two statements. The New Testament gives us varying accounts of Jesus. However, what each of the evangelists consistently presents of Jesus is his engagement in activities of teaching, preaching, healing and care. The central focus of his ministry is the poor and the marginalized, though he is also seen to have encountered those in authority. He does not make any distinction because of gender, race, religion --or for that matter, faith. The tone of Jesus’ ministry as presented in the gospels is one of service. This service is done within the context of the revelation of the Kingdom of God. We also have evidence in the gospels of commissioning -- sending out -- of the disciples by Jesus. For instance, in Matthew’s gospel he sends out the twelve apostles and as he does so, he gives them various instructions, including: “As you go, preach this message: `The Kingdom of heaven is near.’ Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse those who have leprosy, drive out demons’.” Luke gives an account of Jesus sending out seventy-two “others”. Again he commissions them, and again among other instructions, tells them to “Heal the sick who are there and tell them ‘The Kingdom of God is near you.’” Essentially, as Schillebeeckx notes, Jesus is the praxis of the kingdom of God. He reveals to those around him what this kingdom is: salvation for human beings (1985:21). The Apostolic Age The period of the first few generations after the founder is marked with conflict, change, and growth. Within Christianity, various polarities emerge. Jesus Christ himself did not institute any direct tangible form of leadership, other than an original community of believers, a faith community symbolized by the twelve apostles. In terms of Christian doctrine Jesus tells his disciples in the Gospel of John that he will send them the Holy Spirit, the Paraclete, to act as a helper, a counselor, an eternal guide. It is this Paraclete or Spirit that will assist the community in its formation and growth. The organization of the church in the first two centuries after Jesus’ death was based on a fairly loose structure that revolved around house-churches (ekklesia). In some cases, those who were members of a particular house church would sell their possessions and redistribute their wealth among the members of that particular church, according to each individual need. The community itself would recognize charisms, gifts of the Holy Spirit, that were manifest in different individuals. These individuals would serve the community on the basis of their gifts. The worldview that grounded the church was that of building the kingdom of God within an imminent eschatology. The New Testament, especially Acts of the Apostles, gives us accounts of various figures in the first few decades of the development of Christianity. One of these key figures is Paul who had founded various churches around the Mediterranean region. In the Pauline churches, it is Paul that would set the tone and it was he who acted as chief minister to his “flock”. He would instruct, exhort and admonish according to the situation of the different communities. Schillebeeckx writes of Paul:
Though Paul was the authority of his churches, he saw it fit to appoint others to service. For instance, he tells Timothy: “Do not neglect your gift which was given to you through a prophetic message when the body of elders laid their hands on you”; and also “For this reason I remind you to fan into the flame the gift of God, which is in you through the laying on of my hands”. Other churches had different forms of leadership and authority. For instance, in Acts 6:1-6 we are given an account of a dispute in the church in Jerusalem concerning an unfair distribution of food between Grecian and Hebrew widows. The problem is presented to the twelve apostles, who recognize their own lack of charisms in this area and ask the community to suggest seven people who could carry out the responsibilities equitably and justly. The apostles themselves will continue to attend to prayer and ministry of the word. The apostles also lay their hands on the seven who are chosen by the community. The predominant characteristics of ministry in this stage of development are a recognition of various gifts given by God to various members of the community -- both women and men -- who put these gifts to use for the benefit of the whole community, and authority that responds to needs and conflicts that might arise. The “ordination” of those in service was done by prayers of invocation and by the laying on of hands -- an action with roots in the Old Testament. The liturgical action itself tends to be informal and spontaneous. The structure of the church is small enough that a “grassroots” organization is most effective. Presumably, these would have followed along the lines of the synagogue, especially in the case of Pauline churches where Paul on his journeys would have his first encounter with any community at the local synagogue. Schaefer, et al., indicate that by the beginning of the second century a clear form of ministry had emerged in certain churches. While still existing within an apostsolic framework, and still within historical “earshot” of the founder, the church was also coming to comprehend that the eschatological second coming would not necessarily be happening anytime soon, and therefore some institutional formation might be needed. The functions of deacon, elder (presbyter or priest) and bishop (episkopoi) emerge. The first two are designed to be of assistance to the bishop and the whole community. The bishop works to unite the community both within, and also in the larger church. He continues on in the tradition of the apostles, and is their successor. We may note a letter of Ignatius of Antioch:
This model spreads throughout both East and West. Schillebeeckx refers to a letter written by Clement to the church in Corinth. In that letter, which deals with a dispute between some “youngers” who had ousted “elders” (that is, presbyters) in their church, he refers to the functions of deacon, presbyter and bishop. These are leadership roles, but they are also roles of service (especially that of deacon or diakoneo which translates to “serve”) (1985:125-126).
Doctrinal and Institutional Consolidation Within Ellwood’s paradigm of development, the period of doctrinal and institutional consolidation is one where doctrines and institutions emerge that carry on from the apostolic period. Forms and structures within the tradition carry the eternal truths of the original message, but become more stylized (1983:53). Sociologically, the population of Christianity was ever increasing in the third century, despite the fact that there were periods of persecution by governing authorities. The structure of the house-church expanded, and buildings dedicated for the primary use of the church emerged (though these could still be homes that had been donated by wealthier members). The building of the kingdom of God became more and more of a teleological activity than an eschatological one. Within the context of ministry, an overview of the Apostolic tradition of Hippolytus provides a good look at this period as the Christian church moves toward the consolidation of its institutions. This institutional solidification will also be marked with doctrinal changes that work at integrating the practice of the church with its theology. Of the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (Traditio), Schillebeeckx writes:
Hippolytus (d c.215) required bishops to be elected by the whole community, a practice that put him at odds with some in the Christian church in Rome. The bishop was called to serve by proclaiming the Word of God. He was the unifying force of the community, and was the one upon whom “the power of the high-priestly charisma of the Spirit” is called (Schillebeeckx, 1985:135). It was the bishop who would speak before God for the community, and who would be the presider at the eucharist and other liturgical functions. He was also the one who would co-ordinate the ministries of presbyters and deacons. Hippolytus in his Tradition establishes a liturgy for the ordination of a bishop. The chief actions of this ordination were the election of the bishop and the laying on of hands by bishops of neighbouring churches. Hippolytus had also developed ordination rites for presbyters and deacons. The chief action of the liturgy is prayer and the laying on of hands by the bishop, and in the case of presbyters, other presbyters are able to lay hands on one who is about to join their ranks. Prayers imploring the Spirit are said as well. In the case of all three ordination rites, the liturgy itself is formalized and occurs with the entire community present. The ordination itself is still respectful of the charisms the person possesses. During this time, the role of the presbyter became more developed. Schaefer, et al., note that the presbyter is part of a “collegial office”, that is that he is related to other presbyters by the act of being ordained by the same bishop. The presbyter helps and counsels (both the community and the bishop). He carries out the pastoral work of the bishop and has been ordained to “feed the flock”. Despite this, his function is limited in that he cannot ordain -- he has authority to receive but not give (1990:40). Over the next century and half, as Christianity came more and more into prominence in the Roman empire, the liturgical style and ministerial functions changed. The presbyter’s ministerial service becomes more and more individualized. The church moves toward more local, smaller units. The leader of these units is the presbyter, though the bishop is still the unifying force of the larger church, the diocese (a term borrowed from Rome and signifying a district within a larger province). The deacon continued to act as servant of the bishop. There is at this time no indication that this office was a stepping stone toward higher offices. There is also little indication of other ministries -- though the community is involved in the ministerial tasks of being a Christian and living in faithfulness to baptism. There is also no indication that women were in anyway allowed to participate in these offices.
The Imperial Church Christianity -- especially in the West -- would from the fourth or fifth century onward go on to form the religious, cultural and political institutions. At times, during this period, there was no clear distinction between the religious and the political. For some, the kingdom of God was established on earth in the empires of kings and lords, and the spiritual kingdom was not always remembered. With the adoption of Christianity by Constantine in the fourth century, what was once an insignificant sect of Judaism that some had worked at snuffing out became the legal and, shortly thereafter, official religion of the state. Constantine’s aim had been to espouse this religion as a unifying force. As such, the dimensions of the religion (especially those of liturgy) take on new meaning. There is in Christianity a definite shift away from any remnants or semblance of the house-churches that were its hallmark two centuries before. Instead, the influence of the Roman empire is felt as rituals, titles and actions are accorded to the ministerial functions of the church, as well as the church itself. Clergy are civil servants, paid by the state. The basilica (a term which was used to signify the seat of the emperor) became the term used to designate the church of the bishop in a city. The liturgical procession which marks the beginning of the church service is also borrowed from the imperial traditions of Rome. Dioceses become larger, and consequently, the presbyter assumes more and more pastoral initiative (Schaefer, 1990:42). The liturgy itself moves away from being a church service in the context of a larger meal, to a service in and of itself, that at times could last for hours. The function of the bishop became less and less one of unifier of the community, though he did retain the function of proclaiming the good news of the gospel. The presbyter evolved more and more into the sacerdotal priest. Where, at the time of Hippolytus for instance, the bishop is like a high priest, here the presbyter becomes the sacrificing priest of the eucharist who is called upon to read the liturgy. The eucharist is no longer a concelebration of presbyters with the bishop presiding, but rather because of the growth of numbers, and by necessity, is a service lead by the priest. The ministerial role moves from being the elder to being the sacrificer (an Old Testament image). Narsai, a bishop of Nisibe in the fifth century tells us:
Schillebeeckx also notes that Narsai states that the priest perform “the mystery of the inauguration of heaven” (1985:154). The manifestation of the Spirit in the forms of charisms had been eroded away. However, the priest -- as the more frequent minister -- must still come from the community, with ties to that community. The bishop was also the one who was seen to be, along with his deacons, the one entrusted with the care of the poor, and became pater populi -- father of the people, especially the poor. Thousands were taken under the care of the bishop, and for this reason, the church began to acquire property so as to facilitate that care. The church in essence became the welfare worker on behalf of the state. A major event for western Christianity was the religious tradition’s adoption in the northern part of Europe during the reign of Charlemagne. Roman practice, liturgy, language, and academe become normative in the Frankish Empires. This appropriation eventually spread to the rest of Christianity in the West. As part of this transition, and as Christianity was entrenched into the cultural climate, liturgy became the task of specialists, the priests, who would “offer mass”. The priests themselves were assigned not only the sacral functions of offering mass, but also the right of forgiving sins (something which in Hippolytan times was the function of the Bishop). The community’s function at mass was to listen, silently. The priest would recite both his parts and those of the community The ordination rites of priests at the time also indicates a shift in the theology of ministry. As part of the ordination rite, the priest was given a paten and a chalice as part of his ordination, and it is this action that becomes paramount while the action of laying on of hands -- something which dates back to the time of the apostles -- recedes. Furthermore, the ordination to the office of deacon, priest and bishop are interpreted as sacraments which carry the invisible sign or seal of the Holy Spirit. Indeed, the Council of Florence in 1439 decreed that “the matter and form of the sacrament of orders was the handing over of the chalice and paten together with the bishop’s accompanying words ‘Receive the power of offering sacrifice in the Church on behalf of the living and the dead, in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.’”(Schaefer, 1990:44). By the tenth century, the bishops were more often than not members of the noble class who assumed the episcopal function for political gain. They acted “as great lords, church potentates who were preoccupied with their careers and were preoccupied with their careers and were concerned more with the political and financial interests than with the religious ones” (Schillebeeckx, 1985:163). It was also during this stage of development of Christianity that the monastery and monastic orders experienced growth, especially around the beginning of the second millennium and end of the first. They formed their own communities with those whose task was to pray, those whose task was to labour, and those whose task was to defend. Life was prayer, work and war. The spiritual elements now found their home in the monastery with monks and laypeople. The monks took vows, and developed a spirituality based upon the prayer life which centered on the recitation of the Psalms of the Old Testament. Eventually the monastic ideal permeated the life of the secular priest, who in the eleventh century, was likewise required to pray (chant), live in community, and live a celibate life.
Reform Ellwood notes that in this period, the mood is one of “intensification of the devotional mood” with the aim of returning to the original spirit of the tradition (1983:54). The lordship of bishops and the elevation of clergy were two key factors that lead to popular discontent within western Christendom. The concept of ministry, of a church community gathered together and tending to each others; needs was not apparent. While there were pockets of revolt and reform throughout the history of the church prior to this point, the most significant reform within the church occurred in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. I shall not endeavor here to offer here a complete summation of the Reformation era within Christianity. Ministry itself underwent significant reforms within Reformation churches, and would later be redefined at the Council of Trent. The key task for ministers in the Reformation Churches was that of preaching, of proclaiming the Word of God and telling of the Kingdom of God. They would engage themselves in this task by using the language of the people. Paul Bradshaw notes that in terms of ordination rites, the Reform churches present some commonalties:
Martin Luther saw each Christian, by virtue of their baptism, as having a ministry and as being part of the priesthood of all believers. This theology implies that all have an equal responsibility in the task of doing ministry, a service, within the church. He did however, retain ministers who were to lead the worship and preach. Some Lutheran churches would also retain the office of bishop, and claim apostolic succession, while others, though they retained bishops argued that the authority of these arose from within the community. Still others, such as in Germany, rejected the office of bishop altogether. Reformed churches held that there were four offices to which one could be ordained. These were the offices of pastor, teacher, elder and deacon. The Reformers held that there was evidence of each of these in the New Testament. The first and second offices were eventually amalgamated and the title pastor was retained. In this vein, it is the function of pastor which is first and foremost an ordained ministry within the church. Anglicanism retained the threefold ministry of deacon, priest and bishop, as they were presented in Roman Catholicism. However, the theology around each of these changed, especially around the office of priest. Since Christ’s sacrifice on the cross was once and for all, the priest did not sacrifice again at the Lord’s Table, but rather commemorated the paschal mystery. Roman Catholicism would go on to reject Anglican orders by arguing that these orders do not follow in line with the apostles as the ordaining bishop was not validly in succession to the apostles. Methodism had experienced various approaches to ministry. John Wesley himself was reluctant to have formally ordained ministers, and instead trained people to preach and initiated them as preachers. In 1784 he ordained a superintendent and some elders to go to America. Some Methodist churches had retained the offices of bishop and elder (presbyter), but others simply had ordained ministers. Baptists and Congregationalists retained the early church notion of charism, and saw ordination to ministry as a public confirmation of this (after some period of examination). At one time, the minister would be re-ordained if he was to switch churches. The reforms listed here span some two hundred years or more. Indeed, some of these churches -- such as the Methodist church -- emerge out of an established Reform era church -- Anglicanism in this case. However, in terms of ministry, these churches did not all do away with ministry or with ministers, but rather sought to return to the leadership roles of the New Testament as they perceived them to be. While each recognized the need of leadership, they did not share the theology of Roman Catholicism concerning that ministry. Catholicism’s answer to the Reformers can be found in the Council of Trent which offers the official church response. The Tridentine council offers a reaffirmation of the ministry as it is presented in its sacramental form. The Council re-emphasized the function of the priest within the mass as a sacrifice. However, it also attempted to return to a solemnity concerning the mass, and rejected the superstitious practices that took root. Priests were once again required to preach, a ministerial function which had not been common for some time. It also required that bishops be present in their dioceses -- something which prior to this was not a requirement. Trent also established for seminaries for the formation and education of those who sought ordination.
Modernity Much can be written about this period, and much has been. The church in the period since the Reformation has moved toward its own eventual reform. For instance, the notion of the priesthood of the people is something accepted within Roman Catholicism since Vatican II. The Reformation era churches have also moved toward newer understandings of ministry and have increased the involvement of laity in various spheres of church life and ministry. As Ellwood notes of this period, this stage of development “does not occur because of the dynamics of the history of the particular religion but is necessitated by developments in the world as a whole” (1983:54). The effects of modernity -- the stage we are in -- will be most appreciated and understood as Christianity moves in the direction of the next stage of development, whatever that may be. In the meantime, the period that we are currently in is characterized by a more ecumenical trend as well as by efforts to return to the example and experience of the Early Church. In terms of tradition, it is the apostolic stage which is seen as normative. As such, in Roman Catholicism for instance, the priest’s role has moved from simply being a liturgical function to being a ministry engaged in preaching, teaching, pastoral care. Other churches have followed in this way as well. Most have also recognized the need for an increased participation by laypeople in doing ministry and being ministers in whatever capacity they can be. Modernity is also marked with a new realization of the Kingdom of God. While theologians speak of kingdom building, the aim of this action is a response to the original call of the message of Jesus Christ. Social action in local churches -- Catholic, Anglican and Protestant -- is often the force that brings the people togather, outside the context of liturgy. Furthermore, liturgical gatherings are seen as an empowerment and regroupment to continue to do outreach in the community and be ministers toward the building of the Kingdom. In many churches, the laity and the clerical offices have combined input and influence in the direction of the church as well. The image of Bishop as lord and prince is no longer real. Yet, traditions and practices established in the later stages of development continue to be present as well. For instance, in Anglicanism, the paten and chalice are still given to the priest at his or her ordination. The theology that surrounds the act is one that suggests communal support as both these things are gifts from the ordinand’s family and community. The dynamics of the community, and most importantly in this stage, the external forces of a non-Christian world, will continue to dictate developments in the church and its ministries. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bradshaw, Paul 1978 “Reformation Churches”, The Study of Liturgy, Cheslyn Jones, et al., eds., London:SPCK.
Ellwood, Robert S. 1983 Introducing Religion from Inside and Outside, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
O'Meara. Thomas P. 1983 Theology of Ministry, New York: Paulist Press.
Schillebeeckx, Edward 1985 The Church with a Human Face, New York:Crossroads/
Schaefer, Mary and J. Frank Henderson 1990 Canadian Studies in Liturgy; The Catholic Priesthood A Liturgically Based Theology of the Presbyteral Office, Ottawa: CCCB.
Sykes, Stephen and John Booty 1988 The Study of Anglicanism, London:SPCK |
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